The relationship between science and religion is often portrayed as a battle between reason and faith. Popular culture frequently presents scientists as overwhelmingly atheist, while religious communities sometimes view science as inherently hostile to belief. Yet when researchers have actually surveyed scientists over the last century, a much more complex picture emerges.
The evidence suggests that scientists are indeed less religious than the general public, but they are far from uniformly atheist. Belief varies dramatically across disciplines, countries, and levels of scientific prestige. Furthermore, many scientists who reject traditional religion still describe themselves as spiritual.
This article reviews more than a century of surveys and research on scientists' attitudes toward God, religion, and spirituality.
The Birth of the Question: James Leuba's 1914 Survey
One of the earliest systematic attempts to measure scientists' religious beliefs was conducted by psychologist James Leuba in 1914.
Leuba surveyed approximately 1,000 American scientists and asked whether they believed in a personal God who answers prayers. The results surprised many observers:
Even in the early twentieth century, scientists were not overwhelmingly religious compared to the broader population, but neither were they overwhelmingly atheistic. The scientific community appeared almost evenly divided. (Pew Research Center)
Did Science Become More Secular During the Twentieth Century?
Many people assume scientific progress steadily eroded religious belief among scientists.
To test this idea, historian of science Edward Larson replicated Leuba's survey in the 1990s using nearly identical questions.
The result was unexpected.
Scientists' beliefs had changed very little:
Contrary to common assumptions, the twentieth century did not produce a dramatic collapse of religious belief among scientists as a whole.
The Most Famous Modern Survey: Pew and AAAS Scientists
In 2009, the Pew Research Center surveyed members of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, one of the world's largest scientific organizations.
The results became one of the most frequently cited datasets on the topic:
| Belief | Scientists |
|---|
| Believe in God | 33% |
| Believe in a universal spirit or higher power | 18% |
| No belief in God or higher power | 41% |
| Other/unsure | Remaining respondents |
In total, 51% of scientists reported belief in either God or some higher power. (Pew Research Center)
Scientists were substantially less religious than the American public, but they were not predominantly atheist.
The survey also found:
48% had no religious affiliation.
Chemists were more likely to believe in God than several other scientific specialties.
Younger scientists reported somewhat higher levels of belief than older scientists. (Pew Research Center)
Research link
Pew: Scientists and Belief (2009)
Not All Sciences Are Alike
One of the most important findings from modern sociology of science is that there is no single "scientific view" of religion.
Research led by sociologist Elaine Howard Ecklund found substantial variation among disciplines.
In general:
Less religious fields
Evolutionary biology
Molecular biology
Genetics
Astronomy
Physics
More religious fields
Political science
Sociology
Some medical disciplines
Public health
For example, Ecklund's work found that roughly 41% of biologists reported no belief in God, compared with about 27% of political scientists. (Pew Research Center)
This suggests that scientific specialization may shape how scientists think about religion.
The Elite Scientist Effect
One reason public discussions often become confused is that they mix together two very different groups:
Scientists in general.
The most elite scientists.
The distinction matters enormously.
Fellows of the Royal Society
A survey of fellows of the historic Royal Society found overwhelming rejection of:
Researchers concluded that eminent scientists were far less religious than scientists overall.
Interestingly, the study also found that biological scientists were even less religious than physical scientists. (SpringerLink)
National Academy of Sciences
Although not discussed in detail here, multiple studies have similarly found very low levels of traditional religious belief among members of the National Academy of Sciences.
This explains why one often encounters claims such as:
"90% of top scientists are atheists."
Such statements generally refer to elite academy members, not to scientists as a whole.
Religion Versus Spirituality
A major theme emerging from recent research is that scientists frequently distinguish between religion and spirituality.
Many scientists reject:
organized religion,
religious institutions,
supernatural doctrines,
while still embracing:
awe,
transcendence,
wonder,
meaning,
interconnectedness,
spiritual experience.
This distinction has become increasingly important in contemporary sociology of religion.
For many scientists, spirituality refers less to divine intervention and more to experiences of profound connection with nature, mathematics, consciousness, or the cosmos.
What About Scientists Outside the West?
Much of the early literature focused on Europe and North America.
More recent research has highlighted how national culture shapes scientists' religious views.
Indian Scientists
A particularly interesting study examined how Indian scientists define religion and spirituality.
Researchers conducted 80 in-depth interviews with Indian scientists and found that:
many scientists viewed spirituality positively,
religion and spirituality were often treated as distinct concepts,
many participants did not perceive an inherent conflict between science and spirituality,
national and cultural context strongly influenced how religion was understood. (MDPI)
The authors argued that science may function globally, but scientists' understanding of religion remains deeply shaped by local culture. (MDPI)
Research link
Indian Scientists’ Definitions of Religion and Spirituality (2020)
The Myth of the "Science vs Religion" War
Historically, popular discussions have often relied on what historians call the "conflict thesis"—the idea that science and religion are inevitably at war.
Modern scholarship has become much more cautious.
Many scientists see science and religion as addressing different kinds of questions:
| Science | Religion/Spirituality |
|---|
| How does nature work? | Why are we here? |
| Mechanisms | Meaning |
| Testable explanations | Values and purpose |
| Empirical evidence | Existential interpretation |
Not all scientists agree with this separation, but the data show that the relationship between science and religion is considerably more varied than a simple conflict model suggests. (SpringerLink)
Key Review Articles and Research Papers
Foundational Surveys
Elite Scientists
International and Cross-Cultural Research
Broader Academic Literature
What Do the Surveys Actually Tell Us?
After more than a century of research, several conclusions are remarkably consistent.
1. Scientists are less religious than the general public.
This finding appears in nearly every major survey. (Pew Research Center)
2. Scientists are not uniformly atheist.
Large surveys consistently find substantial minorities—and sometimes majorities—expressing belief in God or a higher power. (Pew Research Center)
3. Discipline matters.
Biologists and physicists tend to be less religious than social scientists and some medical researchers. (SpringerLink)
4. Elite scientists differ from scientists overall.
The most distinguished scientific academies show dramatically lower levels of supernatural belief than the broader scientific workforce. (SpringerLink)
5. Spirituality remains surprisingly common.
Many scientists reject organized religion while still describing experiences of awe, wonder, transcendence, and meaning. (MDPI)
Final Thoughts
The question "Do scientists believe in God?" turns out to be far less informative than asking which scientists, in which countries, in which disciplines, and what exactly they mean by God, religion, or spirituality.
A century of research suggests that science does not produce a single worldview. Instead, scientists occupy a broad spectrum ranging from devout believers to committed atheists, with many positions in between. What unites them is not a shared religious outlook, but a shared commitment to scientific inquiry.
The real story is not that science has eliminated religion, nor that religion remains untouched by science. Rather, the two continue to interact in ways that are diverse, culturally dependent, and often far more nuanced than public debates suggest. (MDPI)
