The Lives and Deaths of Indigenous People Turned Into Human Exhibits
The modern world often tells a comforting story about itself.
It says that the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were the great age of:
- science,
- museums,
- exploration,
- anthropology,
- and progress.
But beneath that story lies another one:
a world where Indigenous people were routinely transformed into exhibits.
Some were placed in fairs.
Some were displayed in zoos.
Some became museum subjects.
Some had their skeletons collected after death.
Others became famous precisely because their societies had already been shattered by colonial violence.
Their stories reveal something important:
colonial expansion was rarely caused by one thing alone.
It was not just “guns.”
Not just “germs.”
Not just “technology.”
The collapse of Indigenous societies usually emerged from an interaction between:
- disease,
- military violence,
- displacement,
- racial ideology,
- economic systems,
- and spectacle culture.
Using the famous framework popularized by Guns, Germs, and Steel by Jared Diamond, we can ask a haunting question:
What ultimately destroyed the worlds these individuals came from?
And in many cases, the answer is:
not merely guns, germs, or steel — but the systems of empire built around them.
Saartjie Baartman
The Woman Europe Turned Into a Specimen
Born among the Khoikhoi people of southern Africa, Saartjie Baartman entered European history under one of the most degrading labels ever imposed on a human being:
“The Hottentot Venus.”
In the early 1800s, she was brought to Britain and later France, where audiences paid to stare at her body.
European fascination centered especially on:
- her buttocks,
- her anatomy,
- and racist assumptions about African sexuality.
Scientists, artists, and spectators all participated in the spectacle.
After her death in 1815:
- her skeleton,
- preserved organs,
- and casts of her body
were displayed for decades in French museums.
What destroyed her world?
Germs?
Partially.
European diseases devastated southern African populations during colonial expansion.
Guns?
Yes.
Colonial conquest and frontier violence destabilized Indigenous societies across southern Africa.
Steel?
Indirectly.
European maritime power and industrial systems enabled colonial dominance.
But the deeper force:
Scientific racism and sexualized colonial voyeurism.
Baartman’s suffering was driven not simply by conquest, but by a European obsession with categorizing and displaying colonized bodies.
She died in poverty and illness in Europe.
Even death did not end the exhibition.
Ota Benga
The Man Displayed Beside Primates
Few stories capture the brutality of colonial modernity more clearly than Ota Benga’s.
He came from the Congo during the era of the Congo Free State atrocities under Leopold II of Belgium.
This regime extracted rubber through terror:
- mutilation,
- hostage-taking,
- executions,
- and forced labor.
Ota Benga’s family was reportedly killed during colonial violence.
He was later brought to the United States and eventually exhibited at the Bronx Zoo.
Crowds came to observe him as though he represented a transitional stage between ape and human.
What destroyed his world?
Guns?
Absolutely.
The Congo Free State relied on militarized terror.
Germs?
Less centrally than in the Americas, though disease was widespread under colonial disruption.
Steel?
Yes.
Industrial demand for rubber fueled the entire colonial system.
But the deeper force:
Industrial capitalism fused with racial pseudoscience.
Ota Benga was not destroyed merely by technology.
He was destroyed by a system that converted African lives into extractable resources and racial spectacle.
He later died by suicide in 1916.
Ishi
The Survivor of California’s Forgotten Genocide
Ishi emerged from hiding in California in 1911 after decades of violence against the Yahi people.
The California Gold Rush transformed California into one of the deadliest colonial frontiers in North America.
Settlers:
- massacred Indigenous communities,
- seized land,
- destroyed ecosystems,
- and hunted surviving groups.
Ishi spent years hiding in wilderness areas before eventually entering modern American society.
He later lived in the Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology, where anthropologists documented his culture.
He died of tuberculosis in 1916.
What destroyed his world?
Guns?
Very strongly.
Massacres and militia violence devastated California Indigenous populations.
Germs?
Crucially.
Tuberculosis and other diseases ravaged surviving communities.
Ishi himself died of TB.
Steel?
Indirectly.
Railroads, mining technology, industrial settlement, and agricultural expansion transformed California.
But the deeper force:
Settler colonialism.
The destruction was systematic:
- land seizure,
- extermination campaigns,
- ecological collapse,
- and forced invisibility.
Ishi became famous only because nearly everyone from his world had already died.
Minik Wallace
The Child Betrayed by a Museum
When explorer Robert Peary brought Inughuit individuals from Greenland to New York, they encountered a lethal environment.
Most died rapidly from tuberculosis.
One survivor was the child Minik Wallace.
After his father died, museum scientists removed the skeleton for study and staged a fake burial ceremony.
Minik later learned the truth.
What destroyed his world?
Germs?
Overwhelmingly.
Tuberculosis killed most of the transported Inuit individuals.
Guns?
Not centrally in this specific case.
Steel?
Indirectly.
Modern transportation enabled Arctic extraction and ethnographic collecting.
But the deeper force:
Anthropological objectification.
Minik’s trauma came not merely from disease, but from institutions treating his father’s remains as scientific property.
Julia Pastrana
Exploited Even After Death
Julia Pastrana, an Indigenous Mexican woman with hypertrichosis, became one of the most exploited performers of the Victorian era.
Showmen advertised her as:
- an ape-woman,
- a missing evolutionary link,
- or a hybrid between human and animal.
After she died during childbirth:
- her body,
- and her infant’s body
were embalmed and displayed internationally for decades.
What destroyed her world?
Germs?
Partially.
She died from complications linked to childbirth and illness.
Guns?
Not directly.
Steel?
Only indirectly through industrial entertainment networks.
But the deeper force:
Commercial exploitation and evolutionary spectacle.
Victorian audiences consumed her body as both science and entertainment.
Truganini
Witness to the Collapse of Aboriginal Tasmania
Truganini lived during the catastrophic destruction of Aboriginal Tasmanian society under British colonization.
Violence, disease, displacement, and forced removals devastated communities.
Colonial authorities falsely portrayed her as:
“the last Tasmanian Aboriginal.”
Before death, she feared scientists would display her remains.
That fear proved justified.
Her skeleton was exhibited publicly for decades.
What destroyed her world?
Guns?
Very significantly.
Frontier warfare and settler violence were central.
Germs?
Also major.
Disease devastated Tasmanian communities.
Steel?
Indirectly through colonial settlement systems.
But the deeper force:
Eliminationist settler ideology.
Tasmania became one of the starkest examples of colonial population destruction in the British Empire.
Angelo Soliman
Acceptance Until Death
Unlike many others here, Angelo Soliman achieved elite status in Europe.
He became educated, respected, and integrated into Viennese high society.
Yet after death, his skin was removed and his body transformed into an ethnographic exhibit.
What destroyed his dignity?
Not guns.
Not germs.
Not steel.
But:
racial classification itself.
His story reveals that even social success could not fully overcome the racial imagination of Enlightenment Europe.
Beyond “Guns, Germs, and Steel”
These stories reveal both the strengths and limitations of the famous framework.
Yes:
- disease mattered enormously,
- military power mattered enormously,
- technology mattered enormously.
But these individuals were also shaped by forces the phrase does not fully capture:
- museums,
- racial science,
- industrial entertainment,
- capitalism,
- imperial ideology,
- anthropology,
- and voyeurism.
The destruction of Indigenous societies was not merely accidental biological contact.
It was also:
- organized,
- intellectualized,
- commercialized,
- and publicly celebrated.
The Great Shift in Attitudes
1800s:
Human exhibitions normalized.
Early 1900s:
Criticism slowly grows.
After World War II:
Scientific racism collapses morally after The Holocaust.
Late 20th century:
Museums increasingly return remains and acknowledge colonial violence.
Today:
These individuals are remembered not as curiosities, but as human beings caught within systems of empire and classification.
Final Thoughts
The stories of Saartjie Baartman, Ota Benga, Ishi, Minik Wallace, and others reveal one of the deepest contradictions of the modern age:
The same civilization that built museums and scientific institutions also transformed vulnerable people into exhibits.
Some died from germs.
Some died from guns.
Some died from displacement, grief, exploitation, or spectacle.
And many died because entire systems had already decided that certain peoples belonged not fully within humanity — but on display at its edges.
